Edition 38 Volume 2 - October 21, 2004
The Shi'ite factor in Iraq
• The most to gain -
Ferry Biedermann
In order for the Shi'ites to take part in the political process they need to be reassured that an elected government will not be an American puppet.
• The Shi'ite network in the new Middle East order -
Anoush Ehteshami
The fall of Baghdad has enabled the Shi'ites to emerge as a powerful political force in the Arab world.
• A diverse but united community -
an interview withKamran al-Karadaghi
The Shi'ite establishment, both religious and political, understands they have to work together.
• America's Shi'ite dilemma: whose Iraq is it? -
Judith S. Yaphe
Between accepting an Islamic Iraq at peace with itself or a secular Iraq facing sectarian civil war, which would you choose?
The most to gain
Ferry Biedermann It is tempting to look at developments among the Shi'ite population of Iraq over the last couple of months and paint an optimistic picture for the future of the country. After the guns of August, the holy city of Najaf has remained quiet and the sprawling Baghdad slum of Sadr City also seems to be stabilizing under a weapons buy-back program. The highest spiritual leader of the Shi'ites, Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, has called on his people to register for the upcoming elections while the young upstart, Moqtada al-Sadr, has reigned in his Mahdi army and is also indicating that he wants to participate in the political process.
But optimistic scenarios for post-US invasion Iraq, mainly by westerners, have been proved wrong too often to accept this rosy picture on face value. The first and most obvious caveat should be that we have seen such a period of seeming stability before, between the battles of April and those of August. The difference is that Sadr's hold over Najaf seems really to have been broken this time and that the Shi'ite religious establishment has come out much more forcefully against him. Recently even Sadr's long-time protector, Grand Ayatollah Kazem Haeri, cut his ties with him.
Sadr probably went too far in his confrontation with the Americans for the comfort of the Shi'ite establishment. Despite all the tensions with the occupation forces, the Shi'ites still stand to gain more than any other group in Iraq from the new order that is taking shape. Where they were persecuted and without much influence under Saddam Hussein and his regime, they now make up the majority in the government and the Interim Council. With estimates of Shi'ites accounting for some 60 per cent of the population against just over 20 per cent for Sunni Arabs and under 20 per cent for Sunni Kurds, they could expect to prevail in the upcoming elections. So it seems if they just sit pretty, the country will fall into their hands without the need for a fight.
Of course things are never that simple. First of all, Sistani has flexed his muscles several times already over exactly what kind of state Iraq will be in the future. The Kurds want to keep their autonomy to the degree that they can just retreat back into their mountainous redoubts should things not go well in the rest of the country. Sistani has come out strongly against such a federal structure. He has also objected to the Shi'ites' electoral strength being diluted too much by reserving quotas for other groups.
The relationship between the different ethnic and religious groups in Iraq will be crucial to the future stability and success of the country. The Sunnis, who have as much to lose from the new arrangements as the Shi'ites have to gain, have to be brought aboard for the system to be viable. The violence in the Sunni areas of the country may preclude widespread participation in the elections that are supposed to be held before the end of January. Sistani is on record as saying the elections should not be postponed and that other countries too have gone to the polls under less than ideal circumstances. This may be true but the danger of the Sunnis feeling even further disenfranchised casts the largest shadow over the optimistic scenario.
Sistani has probably recognized this, and he is said to be the driving force behind attempts to set up a widely touted "unified list" that would include the various Shi'ite movements as well as Kurds and religious Sunnis. Apart from solving some of the questions about Sunni representation, such a list may also be highly desirable to avoid further intra-Shi'ite wrangling. Sadr's uprising against the Americans is seen among many Shi'ites more as a ploy to gain more leverage for himself in the fight for political power than as a real attempt to rid the country of the foreign presence. While he seems to have been successful on the street, he also seems to have caused resentment among the Shi'ite leadership. That is the other shadow over the optimistic scenario: intra-Shi'ite fighting or extremist grand-standing toward the Americans to gain more support.
Then there are of course the Americans themselves and the other coalition partners. Immediately after the war, the Shi'ites were overwhelmingly happy with the US presence. In April 2003, during the first post-Saddam Shi'ite pilgrimage to Karbala emotions ran high, with joyous pilgrims even shouting "thank you Bush, thank you Blair". Most wanted the Americans to stay "until the job is done". But Shi'ite religious leaders were even then sounding dire warnings. Mohammed Ridha Sistani, the Grand Ayatollah's eldest son said presciently: "Iraqis do not want to replace a dictatorship with the rule by a foreign country."
Well, the job is mostly done now; Saddam Hussein and most of his lieutenants are in jail or dead. The Americans have failed to bring security to the country and many Iraqis seem to think they'll be able to do a better job themselves. In order for the Shi'ites to take part in the political process, they need to be reassured about two things: First, that the Americans and their allies will really leave, and secondly that the government that is going to be elected will not just be an American puppet. This means that the Americans have to take a step back from their ambitions in Iraq - Published 21/10/2004 (c) bitterlemons-international.org
Ferry Biedermann is a freelance correspondent based in the Netherlands.
The Shi'ite network in the new Middle East order
Anoush EhteshamiA new regional order is fast emerging from the ashes of the recent war in Iraq. On the one hand we see the perceptible shift in the balance of power between the region's Arab states and the three prominent non-Arab states of Iran, Israel and Turkey. In different ways, the latter have gained from the fall of Baghdad. On the other hand there is a less tangible but equally significant intra-Islamic shift taking place in the region, characterized by the tensions between the Shi'ites and the majority Sunnis.
Iran's access through its western gateway to the Arab world, in the shape of Iraq, has been swung wide open, as has its reach to the Shi'ite heartlands in Iraq. Israel can, for the first time in its existence, freely boast that it no longer faces a serious threat from the Arab order, and that the strategic depth (provided by Iraq) that its one remaining Arab adversary, Syria, had always counted on has now been filled. For Turkey, the fall of Saddam has brought political bounties of a different kind in terms of improved relations with the European Union and a freer hand in its dealings with the West and the region as a whole. It also has a much more direct role in assessing the impact of the Iraqi Kurdish factor on its own territory.
Turning to the intra-Islamic shift, the fall of Baghdad has for the first time since the Iranian revolution of 1979 added real impetus to the Arab Shi'ites' cries for a stronger political voice in the Arab world. The fall of the Sunni-dominated Ba'ath regime has enabled the Shi'ites to emerge as a powerful political force and, by virtue of their numbers in such a strategically important country as Iraq, has given them a greater hand than ever before in the shaping of the political map of the fractured and highly polarized Arab system.
The fall of Baghdad at the hands of the US armed forces in April 2003 lifted, possibly for good, the centuries-old Sunni domination of Mesopotamia and the pivotal Shi'ite sites of central and southern Iraq. The end of the Ba'ath regime instantaneously and effectively invigorated the Shi'ite communities of Iraq, mobilizing them into mass action. Within months of the fall of Baghdad several hundred ulama and their families
decamped from their refuge in Iran (and elsewhere) and returned to Najaf, Karbala, and Kazemiah to rediscover their holy past and to engage in the task of rebuilding their country.
Though low key at first, the marking of the two key Shi'ite festivals of Ashura and Tasua in Najaf and Karbala in late spring 2003 demonstrated to the world the cultural depth and vigor of Shi'ism in Iraq; it also gave fright to those Sunni neighbors who had for years feared the emergence of a "Shi'ite international" that would openly challenge their interpretation of Islam on the one hand, and ultimately threaten
their regimes by demanding more rights for the Shi'ite minorities in those states on the other.
The fall of Baghdad has also helped in reducing the one-dimensional Arab-Persian divide that was so successfully exploited by Saddam Hussein alongside the older Sunni-Shi'ite one. Through the "liberation" of Iraq in 2003, the Arab Shi'ites not only gained an independent and more formal presence in pan-Arab circles, but also acquired a voice in the sea of Sunnis dominating the Arab world. Shi'ism could no longer be packaged as an Iranian curse imposed by Iran's Islamic Republic on the Arab world. Despite the active presence in and engagement with the Arab world of the vibrant and powerful Shi'ite communities of Lebanon, the independent voice of the Shi'ites hailing from Najaf and Karbala has had an altogether more qualitative, but perhaps still unquantifiable, impact on the region. The Shi'ite awakening can, if allowed to grow and consolidate, shake the very foundations of the political orders that were resurrected atop the old Ottoman territories early last century.
To the chagrin of radical Sunnis, the reach of the Shi'ites extends in other directions and ways as well. In South Asia, for instance, a population greater than the size of Iraq are Shi'ites, and in Turkic Azerbaijan the vast majority are also Shi'ites. The Shi'ite network has a broad Arab and non-Arab dimension to it, with Iran and Iraq providing the geopolitical anchors for this active community of Muslims. One can talk about a new Shi'ite "crescent" stretching from South Asia to the heart of the Levant in Lebanon, tied together by virtue of a unique belief system, which is underscored by the vast marja'a (emulation) superstructure that brings Shi'ites together from all nationalities and territories. Thus such a key Najaf-based figure as Grand Ayatollah Sistani, in whose hands seems to lie the destiny of the state of Iraq, has millions of Shi'ite "followers" in Iraq itself, as well as in Iran, Lebanon, the Gulf Arab states, and even Azerbaijan. The fact that such relatively junior Shi'ite personalities as Muqtada al-Sadr can use their family heritage to such good effect is testimony to the broad reach of the Shi'ite clerical establishment, and the ease with which the personal can become political in Shi'ite Islam, and vice versa.
By the same token, the senior ayatollahs in Qom will have a large following in other parts of the Muslim world. Such networks not only strengthen the internal pillars of the Shi'ite Muslims, providing moral and practical support to their communities, but also act as powerful supporting bulwarks in defense of the faith as a whole. Shi'ites, therefore, are often found to be much better organized than their Sunni counterparts, and are more fully engaged as communities.
Before 9/11 an intensive "clash of civilizations" was already going on in Afghanistan between various Muslim states supporting or fighting the Taleban. Today, this same kind of turf war is going on in Iraq. Where it will strike tomorrow nobody can tell, but the rise of the Shi'ites will grow to impinge on many domains hitherto assumed to be the prerogative of the Sunni majority in the Middle East region. The movement we can surely detect; its direction, however, is much harder to predict.- Published 21/10/2004 (c) bitterlemons-international.org
Anoush Ehteshami is professor of international relations and head of the School of Government and International Affairs at Durham University, England.
A diverse but united community
an interview with Kamran al-KaradaghiBI: The Shi'ite community forms the majority population in Iraq and it would seem they have the most to gain from elections. So why the armed resistance of Moqtada al-Sadr? Wouldn't it be in the interest of the Shi'ites to cooperate with the occupying coalition forces?
Karadaghi: Well, in a country where about 60 percent of the population is Shi'ite, as are a quite considerable percentage of the Kurdish and Turkmen communities, it is natural that whatever the outcome of the elections the Shi'ites should form a majority. Whether they can be considered as one political bloc is a different matter.
Moqtada al-Sadr is a kind of exception within the Shi'ite community or among the Shi'ite leadership, whether political or religious. The main Shi'ite establishment, including the religious leadership of [Grand Ayatollah Ali al-] Sistani and other political Shi'ite groups, are, in effect, cooperating with the multinational forces, and have been since the beginning. Representatives of major Shi'ite groups like the Dawa Party, or the Supreme Council of the Islamic Revolution and others are represented in the government, and they were represented in the Iraqi Governing Council that was established by the Iraqi coalition authority. So, in effect, they are cooperating, and I think this is one reason why al-Sadr was eventually persuaded by the mainstream Shi'ite establishment that it would be in the interest of the community if he puts an end to his armed struggle against the occupation and joins the political process. This is something that he now says he is willing to do, and he is moving in this direction.
BI: In other words, within the Shi'ite community there are different interests, and it would be wrong to see the community as a monolith?
Karadaghi: Definitely. It's not accurate to say that all the Shi'ite community in Iraq speaks with one voice and is one bloc. There are different voices; there are religious Shi'ites as well as secular Shi'ites, who have a strong influence on the community. There are also Shi'ite Turkmen and Kurds, who may be part of national groups.
One important factor to bear in mind though, is that the Shi'ite establishment, both religious and political, has really learned that they have to work together and to do so on the basis of consensus. If they commit mistakes and split, they might end up as losers from the changes in Iraq, and I think they have managed, until now, to find a way of cooperating and coordinating among themselves. To date, they have formed two main alliances: one, when the Iraqi Governing Council still existed, they formed the so-called Shi'ite House, which brought together all the political and religious groups both inside and outside that council; and another, when they later established what is called the Political Shi'ite Council, which, again, represents almost all the Shi'ite groups and which maintains very strong contacts and even coordinates, I would say, with the religious leadership as represented by Sistani and others.
BI: So despite the internal differences, you would say there is a high level of organization across the different Shi'ite groups?
Karadaghi: There is, despite the fact that you cannot say they all have the same agenda. It looks like, for the time being at least, the various groups think they should try to make the best of the coming elections by acting as a single community with one voice.
BI: What about Shi'ite and Sunni relations?
Karadaghi: This, of course, is a complicated matter in Iraq. I think both communities, or at least the religious leaderships of both communities, sometimes try to hide the real differences and tensions between these groups. On the surface they of course always say that the Shi'ites and Sunnis are all Muslims, there are no differences and there should be no tensions, but in reality there is tension. For centuries, I would say, the Shi'ites were the underdogs in Iraq, and in the last three-four decades under Saddam Hussein they were really an oppressed community in Iraq, they suffered a lot. So all these grievances exist and it won't be easy to solve them quickly. We have to wait and see how these things develop, and whether as a result of elections both communities as represented by their respective political and religious parties, can manage to find a kind of consensus for the sake of the whole country and not just their own narrow interests.
BI: Are you optimistic that this will happen?
Karadaghi: I don't think, looking at Iraq now, one can be 100 percent optimistic. But from the experience of the last one-and-a-half years after the regime change in Iraq, no matter the differences and tensions, all groups--ethnic, political, religious--have managed somehow to find common ground. Whether they will be able to continue this through the elections and after is very difficult to speculate about at the moment.- Published 21/10/2004 (c) bitterlemons-international.org
Kamran al-Karadaghi is an Iraqi commentator and the editorial director of the London-based Institute for War and Peace Reporting. The views expressed here are his own.
America's Shi'ite dilemma: whose Iraq is it?
Judith S. YapheWhen America went to war to liberate Iraq from the cruel hand of Saddam Hussein, its professed goal was a secular Iraq in which democratic principles such as the rule of law, separation of church (or mosque) and state, and civilian control of the military prevailed. The Coalition Provisional Authority tried to enshrine these concepts permanently in the Transitional Administrative Law, or TAL. A considerable amount of political support went to self-professed secular-speaking exiles, even though the factions and their leaders were always described as Sunni or Shi'ite, Arab or Kurd. When the old regime was cast aside, these factions demanded their "fair" share of power which, they agreed, should fall, democratically speaking, to the 60+ percent of the population that was Shi'ite Arab, 20 percent to the Kurds (who are mostly Sunni but outspokenly secular in outlook), and 20 percent to the Sunni Arabs, with the various Turkmen and Christian elements getting token representation.
Since the war's end, avowedly Islamist groups have emerged with different and mostly anti-secular perspectives. Some joined the US-appointed Governing Council and interim government led by Prime Minister Iyad Allawi, a secular Shi'ite Arab. Having cooperated with the US in opposing Saddam, Iraq's more virulent Shi'ite Islamists and their primary benefactor, Iran, believed they were entitled to represent the Shi'ite community, as if it were one community with one vision and voice. Other disgruntled Shi'ites morphed into violent anti-American, anti-foreign, and anti-secular factions, and threatened to destroy the social fabric of Iraq. A third element receded into a political void, happy that the Americans had removed Saddam but unsure of the future, frightened of the violence, and preferring the traditional apolitical approach identified with Iranian-born Grand Ayatollah Ali Sistani and the hawsa (clerical leaders) of Najaf.
Washington has struggled to sort out the component parts of Iraq's Shi'ite world. Some in the Bush administration, with little knowledge of the intricacies and history of Iraqi politics, have tried to threaten and cajole Shi'ite leaders into collaboration. US policy appears to have flowed from their assumption that Iraq's Shi'ites will vote solidly Shi'ite and, being led by an Iranian-born cleric, will demand an Islamic government similar to that in the Islamic Republic and eagerly accommodate to Iran's needs and wishes.
The picture, of course, is much more complicated. After all, this is Iraq. There is no singular Shi'ite vision. Iraq's Shi'ites are Arab, Muslim and Iraqi nationalists, and most probably prefer a government that is both secular and Islamic. Even those who are not religious in lifestyle would have difficulty opposing sharia as part of constitutional law. Four visions, not one, run through the Iraqi Shi'ite world:
* The Supreme Council for the Liberation of Iraq and the Dawa party: Both spent long years in Iranian exile, and joined with Kurdish and Arab nationalist factions in the 1990s in accepting American aid to topple Saddam. Members have served in post-Saddam governments chosen by the US. Their leaders reluctantly accept secular rule, demand sharia law, and have long-term ambitions to see Iraq as a religiously-guided state similar to Iran.
* The Jihadist Shi'ite fringe: Muqtada al-Sadr began expanding control of a radical movement created by his father, the martyred Ayatollah Muhammad Sadiq al-Sadr, in the slums of Baghdad and in southern Iraq. His Mahdi army demanded total withdrawal of US forces, creation of a caliphal-type state, and imposition of strict Islamic law, which he allegedly enforced during his takeover of Najaf and Kufah. After weeks of negotiating and fighting, the Allawi government was able to marginalize Muqtada, but only after Ayatollah Sistani interceded.
* The relative moderates: Sistani, who represents the apolitical (but not non-political) and traditional voice of Shi'ite Iraq, believes Islam must have a role in defining and shaping Iraq but opposes a role for clerics in government. He demands fair, transparent elections and a constitution written by Iraqis that incorporates the principle of majority rule but not a minority (read non-Shi'ite) right to veto the will of the majority. Once grateful for the protection afforded Najaf and his retinue by US forces during the war, he opposes American efforts to shape the democracy debate and impose a constitution not written by Iraqis.
* Secular exiles with an eye on the clerics: Iraq's post-Saddam politics are dominated by the power struggle between Iraqi National Congress head Ahmad Chalabi, once the popular choice in Washington to lead the new Iraq, and Iyad Allawi, prime minister and head of the Iraqi National Accord who received CIA support in exile. Both talk about democracy and human rights but seem to acknowledge that Iraq is a dangerous place where power must be taken, and not given. Chalabi's efforts to acquire a popular support base have failed. Once an avowed secularist, he now looks to the Shi'ite world and Iran to back him. Allawi is pro-American and preaches democratic values but he, too, looks to Shi'ite clerical backing as he tries to replace terrorist-based insurgencies--Shi'ite and Sunni--with an inclusive politics based on negotiation, cooptation, and reconstruction reward.
American policymakers will face some difficult choices in the months ahead. Washington will have to distinguish between Shi'ites who worked with the US and want religious-based governance, Shi'ites who reject all things American yet prefer a non-clerical government, and Shi'ites--religious and secular--who are growing increasingly resentful of the US and may see Iraq's survival dependent on an unorthodox, possibly authoritarian style of democracy. The election scheduled for January will not resolve these issues and in fact, will probably complicate them.
There is no way to determine the "correct" outcome in Iraq. Will democratic institutions and practices bring to power anti-American, anti-secular, anti-democratic forces? Probably, and it may be a conclusion we will have to adjust to and live with. If it comes to a choice between accepting an Islamic Iraq at peace with itself or a secular Iraq facing the prospect of sectarian civil war, which would you choose?- Published 21/10/2004 (c) bitterlemons-international.org
Judith Yaphe is distinguished research fellow for the Middle East at the Institute for National Strategic Studies at National Defense University in Washington. The opinions expressed here are hers and do not reflect the views of the university, the US government or any government agency. The events described in this piece are the product of her imagination.
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